Shoe Making

The History of Shoes: Shoe Making
Cameron Kippen, Curtin University of Technology, Perth WA


Shoes both protect feet as well as, when incompatible in size and shape, present exciting factors in inflammatory conditions e.g. bunion. Despite the presence of pain, people are reluctant to change their footwear styles. The main function of modern footwear is to provide feet with protection from hard and rough surfaces, as well as climate and environmental exposure. To the wearer the appearance of their footgear is often more important than its (mis)function. Consumer resistance to change style is common. Informed decisions of shoe styles are thought to occur when the benefits of alternative shoe styles are carefully explained and footwear habits discussed in a culturally sensitive manner. The author, in the interests of intellectual exchange, explores the world of shoe making in an attempt to inform both lay person and health professional.

Anatomy of the shoe

According to McPhoil (1988) the anatomy of a shoe can be divided in an upper and lower (or bottom part). Sections of the upper include vamp, quarter, toebox, throat, insole board, and topline. The sections of the lower shoe consist of an outsole, shank and heel.

The Upper of the Shoe

All parts or sections of the shoe above the sole that are stitched or otherwise joined together to become a unit then attached to the insole and outsole. The upper of the shoe consists of the vamp or front of the shoe, the quarter i.e. the sides and back of the shoe, and the linings. Uppers are made in a variety of different materials, both natural and synthetic. Leather became the obvious cover of choice because it allowed air to pass through to and from the skin pores thereby providing an opportunity to keep the feet, cool. The plastic properties of animal skins further help mould the shoe to the foot beneath. The ability for leather to crease over flexor surfaces facilitate the function of the foot. Ironically synthetics used as uppers display elastic properties, which mean the shoe upper never quite adjusts to the foot, shape in the same way as natural leather. Synthetics are cheaper to mass-produce and are now found in most mass produced footwear. Synthetic uppers are more waterproof. Woven fabric such as cotton corduroy can be used as uppers. Classified as breathable fabrics these help aeration.

Vamp

The vamp covers the dorsum of the foot (includes the tongue piece) and superior aspects over the toes. This section i.e. the toe puff is reinforced which serves to give the shoe its shape as well as protect the toes. The vamp is often made of more than one piece, creating a decorative pattern. There are various types of vamps suited to different styles of shoes.

Quarter

The complete upper part of the shoe behind the vamp line covering the sides and backpart. The top edge of the sides and back of the quarter describes the topline of the shoe. In athletic shoes the topline is often padded and referred to as a collar. The medial and lateral sections join in a seam at the posterior end of the shoe. In Oxford style lacing shoes, the eyelet section is formed by the superior part of the quarter (while the underlying tongue is part of the vamp). In the Gibson style the lacing segment forms part of the vamp. The heel section of the quarter is frequently reinforced with a stiffener. This helps support the rearfoot. In boots the quarter is often referred to as 'top'. In the Bal method, the front edges of both quarters are stitched together and covered with the back edge of the vamp. In the Blucher method the quarter panels are placed on top of the vamp, and the front edges are not sewn together. In comparison with the Bal method, the Blucher method permits the fitting of a larger foot girth by broadening the throat of the shoe. A convalescent shoe (open to toe) is a variation on the Blucher method in which the lacing extends to the front edge of the vamp. In athletic shoes the vamp and quarter panels are often one continuous piece of nylon or leather with additional leather pieces added to reinforce critical areas of the shoe. Reinforcement added to the region of the medial longitudinal arch are termed the saddle if it is added to the outside of the shoe or the arch bandage if it is added to the inside of the shoe.

The counter is a component of the quarter that stabilises the hindfoot in the shoe and retains the shape of the posterior portion of the shoe. Counters are usually made from fibreboard or heat moulded plastic. Foxing is an additional piece of leather that covers the counter externally. Sometimes a counter will extend medially to support the heel and prevent prolonged pronation. In some children's shoes and athletic footwear the stiffener is extended on the medial of the arch to provide an anti-pronatory wedge.

Toecap

Many shoes incorporate a toecap into the upper of the shoe. Toecaps are either stitched over or completely replace the distal superior aspect of the vamp and can be made into a decorative features referred to as toe tips. The toe box refers to the roofed area over and around the part of the shoe that covers the toes. The function of the toe box is to retain the shape of the forefoot and allow room for the toes. The height and width of the toe box is dictated by shape of the last used to construct the shoe. Certain types of non-athletic and athletic footgear will offer extra depth in the toe box.

Linings

In quality shoes the quarters and vamps are lined to enhance comfort and durability. Linings may consist of various materials ie leathers, fabrics, and manmade synthetics. The lining on the insole segment is called 'the sock' and may be full-length, three-quarter or just the heel section. Many linings are made of synthetic material and are usually confined to the quarters and the insock.

Throat

The central part of the vamp just proximal to the toe box. The throat is formed by the seam joining the vamp to the quarter i.e. throatline. The position of the throat line depends on the construction of the shoe, for example a shorter vamp and longer quarters define a lower throat line. This gives a wider lower opening for the foot to enter the shoe. The throat is defined by the connection of the rear edge of the vamp and the front part of the quarter. The location of the throat will vary with the design of the shoe. Because the vamp and quarter panels are often one piece in the athletic shoe, the throat is at the eyestay. This refers to the point where the lacing is attached to the vamp. The throat of the shoe dictates the maximum girth permitted by the shoe.

The Sole of the Shoe

The term sole derives from 'solea' a Latin word meaning soil or ground.

Insole (inner sole)

A layer of material shaped to the bottom of the last and sandwiched between the outsole (or midsole) and the sole of the foot inside the shoe. The insole covers the join between the upper and the sole in most methods of construction and provides attachment for the upper, toe box linings and welting. This provides a platform upon which the foot can operate and separates the upper from the lower. The insole board is necessary in shoes that are constructed using cemented or Goodyear welt techniques because it is the attachment for upper and lower components. The majority of insole boards are made of cellulose and are treated with additives to inhibit bacterial growth. Athletic shoewear will often have a sockliner, a piece of material placed over the top of the insole board (glued in position or removable.

Outsole

This is the outer most sole of the shoe, which is directly exposed to abrasion and wear. Traditionally made from a variety of materials, the outsole is constructed in different thickness and degrees of flexibility. Ideal soling materials must be waterproof, durable and possess a coefficient of friction high enough to prevent slipping. Leather has poor gripping capabilities and synthetic polymers are much preferred. There are also an infinite variety of surface designs. Extra grip properties can be incorporated in the form of a distinctive sole pattern with well-defined ridges. Alternatively they can be moulded with cavities to reduce the weight of the sole. These cavities need to be covered with a rigid insole or can be filled with light foam to produce a more flexible sole. In some cases two or more materials of different densities can be incorporated into the sole to give a hard wearing outer surface and a softer, more flexible midsole for greater comfort. Synthetic soling materials will off the physical property of dampening down impact levels (shock attenuation).

Shank

The shank bridges between the heel breast and the ball tred. The shankpiece or shank spring can be made from wood, metal, fibreglass or plastic and consists of a piece approximately 10cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The shank spring lies within the bridge or waist of the shoe, i.e. between heel and ball corresponding to the medial and lateral arches. The shankpiece reinforces the waist of the shoe and prevents it from collapsing or distorting in wear. The contour of the shank is determined by heel height. Shoes with low heels or wedged soles do not require a shank because the torque between the rear and forefoot does not distort the shoe.

Heel

The heel is the raised component under the rear of the shoe. Heels consist of a variety of shapes, heights, and materials and are made of a series of raised platforms or a hollowed section. The part of the heel next to sole is usually shaped to fit the heel, this is called the heel seat or heel base. The heel breast describes front face of the heel. The ground contact section is called the top piece. Heels raise the rear of the shoe above the ground. A shoe without a heel or midsole wedge may be completely flat. When the heel section sits lower than the forefoot the style is called a 'negative heel'.

Welt

The strip of material which joins the upper to the sole. Most shoes will be bonded by Goodyear-welted construction. Some shoes use an imitation welt stitched around the top flat edge of the sole for decorative purposes, but it is not a functional part of the shoe.